It was believed that the gods had destined the Aztecs to be a warrior people, and they became increasingly focused on warfare and military achievement, even practising “flowery wars” specifically for the purpose of securing victims. To the Aztec, 1519 was a year that began with their empire as the uncontested power in the region. In only two years, Hernán Cortés brought about the downfall of an efficient military civilisation through a combination of diplomacy, warfare, tactics, luck and sheer force of personality. He ordered the construction of thirteen small war ships (brigantines) by his master shipbuilder, Martín Lópe… It lasted 70 days, It was believed that sacrifice led to a privileged afterlife and some Aztecs themselves became victims, but captives were most commonly used for this purpose. He finally got his first taste of exploration when he joined a mission under led by Diégo Velasquez in 1511. lake and he set out to build a fleet of prefabricated boats. An earlier realisation of the extent of the conquistadors’ intentions might also have allowed the Aztecs to marshal resistance and move against them more effectively. Caroline Dodds is a lecturer at the University of Leicester specialising in Aztec and early modern Atlantic history. In the early 16th century, Spanish colonies were already well established in the Caribbean islands and they were turning their eyes westward. Having arrived in the Gulf of Mexico with the largest force yet seen in the New World, Cortés ordered that most of the 10 ships of his fleet be disabled, depriving the conquistadors and sailors of any choice but to follow him into the jungle. Cortés was a devout Christian. Between about 1350 and the 1520s, the Aztecs flourished on the site of modern-day Mexico City. At fourteen, Cortés was sent to l… Cortés’s overall plan was to trap and besiege the Aztecs within their capital. Archaeologists have discovered two iron ship anchors off Mexico's Gulf Coast that could have belonged to Spaniard Hernan Cortes' fleet, which landed in … Cortés eventually decided to send some of this treasure back to the King of Spain, who was entitled to a fifth of any treasure. Pizarro's second voyage (November 1526 to late 1527) was much larger, with 160 men and several horses carried in two ships. In recent years, the Aztec past has been increasingly rediscovered and valued as a vital part of Mexican heritage, but Spanish, particularly Catholic, culture also underlies their way of life. At the end of December 1520, Cortés' army moved toward Tenochtitlán; the boats followed later, transported in pieces overland by 8,000 native carriers. by Charles V, who also blessed his second marriage. of Spain, outlining his actions since his arrival in In 1522, after conquering the Aztecs, Cortés was appointed captain-general and governor of “New Spain” (Mexico), granting him great property and influence. In the wake of this Night of Tears, Cortés showed remarkable fortitude, leadership and resourcefulness. Cortés began farming in the Spanish colony, which brought him much wealth, and owned several native slaves. They rose from humble beginnings as migrants from the north through a combination of military and diplomatic tactics to become the dominant force in the region. temple courtyards and again celebrated their fiestas in the This ship would be leaving for Spain in few days, nearly two months past the ideal departure weather. The key to victory, he believed, was the Links with individuals, particularly the interpreter Malinztin, also gave Cortés considerable tactical and diplomatic advantages and allowed him to negotiate directly with indigenous peoples. What happened to the lost colony of Roanoke Island? The ship was loaded with the Royal Fifth (the King of Spain claimed 20% of all spoils) of the Aztec treasure they had obtained so far in order to speed up Cortés's claim to the governorship. Soon Still the Aztecs would not surrender, even when only Cortés’s deification appears to be a combination of mistranslation and later invention, however, and although it is very likely that some of the portents occurred – a comet, an eclipse, a deformed birth – it seems likely that, looking to explain their devastating defeat, the Aztecs retrospectively identified these omens as markers of their downfall. Tlatelolco note that the Mexicans were already fighting among Much has been made of the Aztecs’ “superstitious” belief that Cortés was a god, and that Montezuma was paralysed with fear by a series of omens predicting the downfall of the city. Trapping the unarmed Aztecs, the conquistadors slaughtered them mercilessly until, according to the Nahuatl (Aztec language) chronicles, “the blood of the warriors flowed like water”. How many Indian allies he had is difficult to gauge. a mysterious and alien illness that had horrifying symptoms of Who carried the pieces of Cortés’s ships to Tenochtitlan? After several weeks of outright confrontation, the conquistadors make peace with the Aztecs’ Tlaxcalan enemies and they enter the city of Tlaxcala, marking the beginning of the alliance between them. Through a combination of brutal force and diplomacy, he gradually convinced many groups to support him and openly defy the Aztecs. When the Spaniards first discovered the Inca, how did they communicate? The conquest of Mexico is not only a significant event in world history, but is also particularly important because there are multiple accounts of the conquest from different points of view, both Spanish and indigenous. Cortes’s army besieged Tenochtitlan for 93 days. What did Pizzaro bring on his second trip to the New World? The Aztecs were conquered by Spain in 1521 after a long siege of the capital, Tenochtitlan, where much of the population died from hunger and smallpox. overland by 8,000 native carriers. After Christmas 1520, the conquistadors set out to return to Tenochtitlan. What did Pizzaro bring on his second trip to the New World? The conquistador Bernal Díaz, who wrote a famous history of the conquest, described it graphically: “The walls of that shrine were so splashed and caked with blood that they and the floor too were black… the stench was worse than that of any slaughterhouse in Spain”. His mother was Catalina Pizarro Altamirano. ... Cortés's victory destroyed the Aztec empire, and the Spanish began to consolidate control over what became the colony of New Spain. Brigantine [Spanish]. They were an expressive and sophisticated civilisation that valued poetry, art and family highly. The Aztec gods required human blood (let from living bodies, as well as through the death of sacrificial victims) to nourish them and sustain the world. themselves. Cortés now had 140 horsemen, 700 foot soldiers, more than 100 crossbowmen, and men expert in firing harquebuses. Aguilar petitioned his Maya chieftain to be allowed to join his former countrymen, and he was released and made his way to Cortés's ships. You can unsubscribe at any time. It was at Suddenly, among the sounds of worship, the screams of battle were heard and the drummer was abruptly silenced as a Spanish soldier sliced off his arms. The official website for BBC History Magazine, BBC History Revealed and BBC World Histories Magazine, Save over 50% on a BBC History Magazine or BBC History Revealed gift subscription, Caroline Dodds tells of how Hernán Cortés conquered Tenochtitlan and how he earned his fearsome reputation. His parents were poor hidalgos (members of the lower nobility), for whom biographers would claim illustrious ancestors, celebrated for heroism and learning. After crossing the mountains, Cortés’ army took Texcuco on December 31, 1520. Through his mother, Hernan was second cousin to Francisco Pizarro, who later conquered the Inca empire of modern-day Peru (not to be confused with another Francisco Pizarro who joined Cortés to conquer the Aztecs). He also had horses and armor, which the Aztec lacked entirely. Part 2: Pizarro and the Conquest of the Incas. Please enter your number below. The ships were designed to hold 25 to 30 men, some with small artillery pieces. At age 14, Cortés was sent to study law at the University of Salamanca, but he was restless and unhappy. A huge marketplace drew thousands of people every day from all over this “empire” (as some historians have called it) and a ceremonial precinct lay at the centre of the city, from which the pyramid of the Great Temple towered over the grid of canals and streets. Magna Carta: everything you wanted to know, Monarchy history quiz: test your knowledge of these kings and queens, A big day in history: the first baby is born to English settlers in the Americas. About a month later, on 24 June 1520 the Spanish captain Hernán Cortés returned from the coast and was furious to find the Aztecs prepared for war and his comrades besieged and starving. Constructed in Tlaxcala, the boats were carried in pieces to the lake by thousands of indigenous bearers in an incredible feat of dedication and skill. The Mexicas called him "the Sun" because of his very blond hair. The reality is far more complex, but at the same time far more impressive. The city was clean and well-ordered, with strong laws and political administration, but the Aztecs have often been regarded as a brutal and even evil people because they practised human sacrifice. The people of Tlaxcala in particular had long been enemies of Tenochtitlan and, after first resisting the Spanish incursion ferociously, they accepted the military superiority of the Europeans and agreed to support them against Montezuma’s rule. Yet, only a year later, Cortés would secure his place in history as the commander of the conquest of Mexico. His father, Martín Cortés de Monroy, was an infantry captain of distinguished ancestry but slender means. "racking coughs and painful burning sores." You will shortly receive a receipt for your purchase via email. You're now subscribed to our newsletter. Horses and war dogs were also new to the Aztecs, who quickly realised their tactical importance and began to target them in battle. Fallen Eagle." Puertocarrero and Montejo were carefully chosen. Transatlantic links drove forward the exchange of goods, information and people, beginning the process of conquest and colonisation which created our modern multicultural world. Retreating to Tlaxcala, he marshalled his remaining forces and allies, not without difficulty, and determined to reverse their fortunes. They marvelled at the towering temples, grand palaces, beautiful gardens and great markets, but were revolted by the terrible spectacle of human sacrifice. Hernán Cortés was born in Extremadura, Spain, in the mid-1480s of respectable but undistinguished hidalgo (minor noble) birth. The Spanish revulsion at human sacrifice has often been described as nothing but a justification for their invasion, but the religious impetus to conquest should not be underestimated. As Cortés’s interest in gold became apparent, larger golden pieces such as a six-and-a-half foot wheel came his way, and also a Spanish helmet filled to the brim with gold dust. Constructed in Tlaxcala, the boats were carried in pieces to the lake by thousands of indigenous bearers in an incredible feat of dedication and skill. His letters to Charles V show the profound belief that if the “evil practices” of the Aztecs could be stopped then they would “worship the true God with… fervour, faith and diligence” and his attitude is typical of many Catholics in this period. Cortés immediately recognised the city’s value and hoped to present it intact to the Holy Roman Emperor Charles V. Wanting to secure the city peacefully, Cortés negotiated his way into Tenochtitlan as an ambassador of Charles V and was magnificently received by Montezuma, who entertained the Spaniards and their allies lavishly. Thank you for subscribing to HistoryExtra, you now have unlimited access. Cortés’s men must load the ship with every ounce of treasure they had procured along the way. After a three-month siege, Spanish forces under Hernán Cortés capture Tenochtitlán, the capital of the Aztec empire. The Aztecs cleaned the Cortés also learned that Motecuhzoma and his army had many enemies who might be turned against the Mexica. this time that Cortés wrote his long second letter to the King There seems to be a problem, please try again. Cortés and Montezuma: the conquering of Tenochtitlan. Cortés men leveled the city and captured Cuauhtemoc, the Aztec emperor. While the Spaniards were in Tenochtitlan, Velázquez assembled a force of nineteen ships, more than 800 soldiers, twenty cannons, eighty horsemen, one-hundred and twenty crossbowmen, and eighty arquebusiers under the command of Pánfilo de Narváez to capture Cortés and return him to Cuba. By entering your details, you are agreeing to HistoryExtra terms and conditions and privacy policy. Originally founded on inhospitable marsh and small islands in Lake Texcoco, by the 16th century their great island capital of Tenochtitlan had grown into a spectacular metropolis, linked to the mainland by three tremendous causeways and the heart of a network of nearly 400 subject and allied cities. rebuilt his military force. When he heard of Cortés’s arrival Montezuma refused to meet with the Spaniards, instead sending gifts, offering the tribute that frequently resolved disputes in Mesoamerican society. What deadly disease spread through the Incan empire? Cortés’s contingent consisted of 11 ships carrying about 630 men (including 30 crossbowmen and 12 arquebusiers, an early form of firearm), a doctor, several carpenters, at least eight women, a few hundred Arawaks from Cuba and some Africans, both freedmen and slaves. The 11 ships under Cortés’s command set sail from Cuba in December 1519 with some 530 European men, several hundred Cuban Indians (including women), 16 horses, and numerous dogs. 30 June 1520: Spaniards flee Tenochtitlan. They believed sacrifice was a privilege, and were able to accept that violent death was a necessary part of life. Adorned with feathers and paint, the Aztec warriors whirled, dancing and stamping, their song rising in an intoxicating crescendo to honour the gods. The Spaniards and their allies flee Tenochtitlan on the Night of Tears. The Codex Azcatitlan is an Aztec codex detailing the history of the Mexica and their migration journey from Aztlán to the Spanish conquest of Mexico.The exact date when the codex was produced is unknown, but scholars speculate it was crafted some time between the mid-16th and 17th centuries. Columbus had landed at San Salvador and explored the West Indies in 1492, when Cortés was a young boy. Cortés was born in 1485 in Medellín, a small town beside the Guadiana River in Extremadura. Moctezuma had covertly sent agents to inspect the ships of Cortés’s predecessor Grijalva, when they put in along the empire’s northern coast (at those latitudes, Atlantic is to the north as the Pacific is to the south, as is confirmed by the Spanish words then used for those oceans, “mar del norte” and “mar del sur”). Hernan Cortés is described as a si… Fall of the Aztec Empire. As the conquistadors marched toward Tenochtitlan they encountered the subjects and enemies of the Aztecs, and Cortés increasingly observed internal hostilities that he could exploit to his advantage. Did Cortez burn his ships? The siege was devastating for both sides. He had them built in pieces then carried to the eastern shore of Texcoco and assembled there. Smallpox certainly added to the rigours of the siege and disrupted the Aztec chain of command, but it also affected other indigenous peoples, including Cortés’s allies. Indigenous accounts are from particular indigenous viewpoints (either allies or opponents) and as the e… After returning to Mexico in 1530, Cortés spent much of his life struggling to assert his rights and preserve his reputation, having met with considerable political opposition and been accused of murdering his first wife (who died in 1522). Cuauhtemoc, a young and determined warrior, succeeded to the throne after Montezuma’s unfortunate successor died of the smallpox epidemic that was ravaging the city. At Tlaxcala Cortés pacified his wavering Indian allies and Mexico-Tenochtitlán. Small pox entered the city. Although modern usage often calls the European participants “soldiers”, the term was never used by these men … Surrounded by thousands of warriors in the Aztec capital, the conquistadors became increasingly aware of their precarious position and began to fear a trap. After returning to Spain in 1540 to plead his cause, he died disillusioned in Seville in 1547. A clear and ambitious tactician, he was devout, brave and single-minded in pursuit of his goals. Columbus had set sail hoping to … Click on Pizzaro in the top left hand corner. The weapons and armour of the Spaniards were certainly formidable against the easily-shattered obsidian blades and arrows of the indigenous people, but the thousands of allies supporting the conquistadors should not be forgotten. uncle, Ahuitzotl and was an experienced leader. In 1504, he sought passage on a ship to Santo Domingo, Hispaniola (modern day Dominican Republic). surrender of towns all around the lake. Who did Capac name as a successor? The Aztecs’ practice of warfare disadvantaged them in some encounters as they fought to capture victims for human sacrifice rather than to kill. They applied a warrior tradecraft with lethal proficiency. On 13 August 1521, Cuauhtemoc was captured and the Aztecs admitted defeat. This “germ warfare” profoundly impacted on the New World as a whole, as indigenous populations, lacking any natural resistance, were devastated by European diseases. He became fascinated with tales of Christopher Columbus' New World explorations. They had to face attacks in outlying regions, but the brigantines were finally launched late in April 1521 and, with forces besieging the city from every direction, the battle began in earnest. Fourteen pieces were sent to the Monastery of St Francis of Medellín, the Estremaduran church of Cortés's birthplace and from where the mission of the Twelve Franciscans would leave for New Spain a year later. The skill and sheer number of the Aztec warriors caused massive casualties among the attackers, even while they themselves died in huge numbers from starvation and disease. While the Spaniards were in Tenochtitlan, Velázquez assembled a force of nineteen ships, more than 1400 soldiers with twenty cannons, eighty horsemen, one-hundred and twenty crossbowmen, and eighty arquebusiers under the command of Pánfilo de Narváez to capture Cortés and return him to Cuba. Cortés's letters to Charles V provide a detailed account of his activities in Mexico from 1519 to 1526. Why and to what extent Montezuma cooperated remains unclear, but his cooperation certainly secured the temporary obedience of the people, albeit in an atmosphere of increasing resentment. As commonly occurs in the biographies of self-made heroes, the few facts of Cortés’s youth have been supplanted by speculation to invent the lineage, training, and experience that befit so-called singular men of the Renaissance. From his earliest days in the city, Cortés urged the Aztecs to renounce human sacrifice and replace their idols with images of the Virgin Mary. Less than a week later, he seizes the Aztec ruler and takes control of the city. Smallpox was particularly devastating during the conquest of Mexico and, in the following years, other illnesses such as measles, mumps, typhus, influenza and the plague brought many indigenous American populations to near extinction. How were Pizzaro and his men welcomed by the Inca? 20 July 1519. crossed the causeways into Tenochtitlán. Cortés repeatedly sought the Aztecs’ surrender, hoping to avoid the total destruction of the city, but it became clear that the Aztecs would fight to the death and the attackers were forced to close the lines of escape, no longer drawing back to their camps at night, but advancing all the time and destroying buildings to prevent their recapture. During their first few days in the city, the conquistadors were shown both the wonders and horrors of this new world. Her book Bonds of Blood: Gender, Lifecycle, and Sacrifice in Aztec Culture was published by Palgrave Macmillan in 2008. The brigan­tines, which had been built at Tlaxcala and carried piece-by-piece over the mountains, they reassembled at Texcuco. She has been seen alternately as the mother of the mestizo (people of mixed blood) nation or the ultimate traitor to her people, and this ambiguity underlies modern Mexican attitudes to their history. This grand gesture confirmed his intention, as he later declared, “that they would conquer and win the land, or die in the attempt”. At the end of December 1520, Cortés' army moved toward Tenochtitlán ; the boats followed later, transported in pieces overland by … Having lost more than half their company, they rally at Tlacopan before retreating to Tlaxcala. Withdrawal would have alienated their allies, who were receiving word of aggressive Aztec behaviour in the provinces, and so Cortés resolved on a bold course of action. In 1518, dissatisfied with life as a landowner, administrator and politician, he set out on his expedition to the American mainland. The key to Cortés’s plan was the building of 12 brigantines that would allow him to command the lake and besiege Tenochtitlan. Rumours of a powerful kingdom in the interior had been confirmed by emissaries from the city of Tenochtitlan, the capital of the Aztecs. When the Spaniards first discovered the Inca, how did they communicate? Superior weaponry and a devastating smallpox outbreak enabled the Spanish to … If you subscribe to BBC History Magazine Print or Digital Editions then you can unlock 10 years’ worth of archived history material fully searchable by Topic, Location, Period and Person. Although his original instructions had been only to explore the region, Cortés hoped to achieve far greater gains. The figure of Marina epitomises the controversy of the conquest’s legacy. A combination of luck, allies and might have enabled Cortés to succeed. The Aztecs were not dehumanised by this bloodshed, however. Having fought their way back to the lake, the conquistadors launch their brigantines, besiege the city, and the great battle for Tenochtitlan begins. The importance of his leadership has at times been overstated, but Cortés undoubtedly made critical and creative decisions at key moments in the conquest and provided effective and often inspirational leadership. How were Aztec wiped out? Cortés faces Montezuma on the great causeway leading to Tenochtitlan. A week later, more than half of the Spanish had been killed during their flight from the city on a single “Night of Tears” and Cortés stood surrounded by the remnants of his great expedition. Alliances with the Aztecs’ enemies and disgruntled subjects ensured the conquistadors an almost unending supply of warriors, auxiliary support, food and other supplies. The real Amazons: How the legendary warrior women inspired fighters and feminists, Tudors in America: how England’s New World colonies came into being, Objects with meanings: How artefacts can give us a new take on global history, Percy Fawcett and the lost city of Z: The history behind the film, Podcast: The Battle of the Atlantic and the history of Spain, 10 things you (probably) didn’t know about the Spanish Armada. Tenochtitlan, Cortés’s great prize, and its inhabitants were decimated. Cortés was born in Medellín, in the province of Extremadura, in the Kingdom of Castile in Spain in 1485. But to carry out such a project, both to find Motecuhzoma and to make alliances with native groups, would take time … There is one final piece, or rather person, to this puzzle. Cortés’s well-trained soldiers were armed with the latest in military technology—steel weapons, horses, and ships. At the end of December 1520, Cortés' army moved toward Bringing gifts of gold which roused the Spaniards’ greed, the messengers brought word from the Aztec tlatoani (speaker) Moctecuhzoma Xocoyotzin, the powerful ruler who became known to history as Montezuma. With their red and white insignia, thousands of Tlaxcalans accompanied the Spanish when, in November 1519, the conquistadors caught their first sight of the island city of Tenochtitlan, which seemed to one like an “enchanted vision” rising out of the lake. The key to Cortés’s plan was the building of 12 brigantines that would allow him to command the lake and besiege Tenochtitlan. He seized Montezuma, and for the next eight months ruled the city through him. Doña Marina, the indigenous translator who appears constantly at Cortés’s side in images of the conquest, and who eventually bore him a son, was critical to his ability to negotiate with indigenous people, which was central to the conquest. Combined with Spanish military technology, European diseases have often been accorded a major role in the conquest of the Aztecs; the “guns, germs and steel” theory made popular by Jared Diamond. Months of tactical manoeuvring were ended by this confrontation, and his careful plans for a peaceful victory had been ruined. Who carried the pieces of Cortés’s ships to Tenochtitlan? Lacking any natural immunity, the indigenous peoples were decimated by diseases brought by the conquistadors. They elected a new king, Cuautemoc, "The Part 2: Pizarro and the Conquest of the Incas. until late November, and killed a vast number of people. 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